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Stomata are openings on the leaf surface that regulate gas exchange; they allow CO2 to enter for photosynthesis and O2 to exit, balancing water conservation with the need for carbon fixation.

The Calvin cycle invests ATP to regenerate ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP), ensuring a continuous process for CO2 fixation and glucose production which sustains plant growth and the global food chain.

ATP and NADPH are used to convert 3-phosphoglycerate into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), a three-carbon sugar, which is the precursor to glucose and other carbohydrates vital for plant structure and energy storage.

Oxygen is produced as a byproduct of splitting water molecules during the light-dependent reactions. This oxygen is essential for maintaining Earth's atmosphere and enabling aerobic life.

Photorespiration is a process where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP, leading to the release of CO2 and consumption of energy, potentially limiting photosynthesis efficiency, particularly in C3 plants under stress conditions.

Chlorophyll in the chloroplasts absorbs sunlight, initiating the process of photosynthesis, which is critical for the production of energy-rich glucose that fuels plant growth.

ATP and NADPH are produced during the light-dependent reactions; these molecules store energy and reducing power, respectively, which are later used in the Calvin cycle for synthesizing glucose.