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Pattern

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Rules of Inference

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Modus Ponens

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If pqp \rightarrow q and pp are given, then we can infer qq. Example: If it is raining, then the ground is wet. It is raining. Therefore, the ground is wet.

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Modus Tollens

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If pqp \rightarrow q and ¬q\neg q are given, then we can infer ¬p\neg p. Example: If it is raining, then the ground is wet. The ground is not wet. Therefore, it is not raining.

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Hypothetical Syllogism

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If pqp \rightarrow q and qrq \rightarrow r are given, then we can infer prp \rightarrow r. Example: If it rains, the picnic will be canceled. If the picnic is canceled, we will watch a movie. Therefore, if it rains, we will watch a movie.

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Disjunctive Syllogism

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If pqp \lor q and ¬p\neg p are given, then we can infer qq. Example: It is either raining or snowing. It is not raining. Therefore, it is snowing.

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Addition

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From proposition pp, we can infer pqp \lor q, for any proposition qq. Example: It is raining. Therefore, it is raining or I am hungry.

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Simplification

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From pqp \land q, infer pp. Example: The ball is red and round. Therefore, the ball is red.

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Conjunction

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From pp and qq, infer pqp \land q. Example: The ball is red. The ball is round. Therefore, the ball is red and round.

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Resolution

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From (pq)(p \lor q) and (¬pr)(\neg p \lor r), infer qrq \lor r. Example: It will rain or snow today. It will not rain or it will be cold. Therefore, it will snow or be cold.

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Universal Instantiation

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From x,P(x)\forall x, P(x), infer P(c)P(c) for a particular cc. Example: All birds can fly. Tweety is a bird. Therefore, Tweety can fly.

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Existential Generalization

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From P(c)P(c) for a particular cc, infer x,P(x)\exists x, P(x). Example: Tweety can fly. Therefore, there exists a bird that can fly.

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