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Galileo is known for his improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations that supported heliocentrism.

Newton formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation which he used to predict planetary orbits.

Hubble made the observational discovery that the universe is expanding, leading to the formulation of Hubble's Law.

Hawking made significant contributions to cosmology and theoretical physics, including the prediction of Hawking radiation.

Einstein developed the theory of relativity, which has become fundamental to modern physics.

Sagan was crucial in popularizing astronomy through books and the television series 'Cosmos'.

Kepler formulated the three laws of planetary motion which significantly improved the heliocentric model of the solar system.

Leavitt discovered the relation between the luminosity and the period of Cepheid variable stars, which became a crucial step in measuring cosmic distances.

Chandrasekhar determined the maximum mass for white dwarfs, beyond which they would collapse into neutron stars or black holes.

Cannon developed a stellar classification system based on the temperature of stars, which is still used today (OBAFGKM).

Herschel discovered the planet Uranus and its two moons, and also two moons of Saturn, in addition to creating a comprehensive catalog of nebulae and star clusters.

Rubin provided some of the most convincing evidence for the existence of dark matter through the study of galaxy rotation curves.

Bell Burnell discovered the first radio pulsars, providing important evidence for the existence of rapidly rotating neutron stars.

Lemaître proposed the Big Bang theory for the origin of the universe and also derived Hubble's Law independently.

Jansky discovered cosmic radio waves, thus laying the groundwork for the field of radio astronomy.

Copernicus formulated the heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the center.

Brahe's detailed astronomical observations laid the foundation for Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

Hipparchus is considered the founder of trigonometry and made fundamental contributions to the understanding of the motion of the Sun and Moon.

Eddington was a key figure in the popularization and interpretation of Einstein's theory of relativity in the English-speaking world.