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Development of public spaces like agoras and gymnasia; use of terraces in hilly landscapes; beginnings of the western tradition of garden design.

Implementation of complex aqueducts and water features; formal gardens with peristyles; extensive use of sculpture and ornate detailing.

Lighter and more playful elements than Baroque; ornamental gardens with sculpture and small-scale water features; curvilinear patterns.

Reaction against industrialization; intricate garden layouts with local materials; incorporation of cottage gardens and herbaceous borders.

Functionality focus with medicinal and kitchen gardens; monastery gardens for contemplation; use of wattle fences and raised beds.

Dramatic style with sweeping vistas; emphasis on perspective and surprise; inclusion of parterres, topiaries, and monumental staircases.

Simplification of form and function; use of abstract shapes; integration of outdoor and indoor living with strong architectural links.

Use of geometric patterns and water features reflecting paradise; creation of the charbagh (four-fold garden); emphasis on enclosed spaces and privacy.

Eclecticism with a range of styles; carpet bedding and glasshouses; introduction of public parks and gardenesque approach.

Characterized by symmetry, axiality, and monumental constructions; incorporation of water into design with irrigation and pools; use of ceremonial gardens.

Pluralism and complexity over unity and simplicity; use of whimsical elements; breaking of modernist rules with a mix of styles and cultural references.

Rebirth of classical principles; symmetry, order, and control over nature through geometric gardens; large ornate fountains and expansive vistas.

Extension of Baroque; strict geometric patterns and symmetry; grand allées leading to focal points; intricate parterres and water features.

Naturalistic style opposing the formalism of the earlier periods; serpentine lakes and rolling lawns; inclusion of folly buildings and ha-has.