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Views sport as an expression of natural human abilities and talents, emphasizing a connection to human nature and physicality.

Challenges Realism, suggesting that sports do not represent an objective reality, but rather are shaped by human perceptions and culture.

Focuses on individual freedom, choice, and responsibility within sports, viewing athletic engagement as a way to define oneself and create meaning.

Broadens the scope of Formalism by considering unwritten norms and the spirit of the game. It values the internal experiences and traditions of the sport.

Focuses on the descriptive aspects of sports, analyzing how people actually play and view the game, rather than prescriptive rules of how they should play.

Argues that ethical principles grounded in reason should guide how sports are played and governed, emphasizing fairness and justice.

Claims that sports are a social construct, with meanings, values, and practices shaped by cultural and societal influences.

Concentrates on the written rules of a sport as the sole guide for correct play, but allows for interpretation that respects the spirit of the game.

Asserts that the rules of a sport are created by social agreements and conventions. Therefore, the nature of a sport can evolve when its rules do.

Looks at sports as an art form focusing on the beauty, grace, and creative expression within the performance of athletes.

Emphasizes the normative rules of sports, focusing on how the game should be played according to the established standards and ethics.

Holds that there are intrinsic, unchanging rules that define the essence of a sport. The focus is on rule adherence. Breaking these rules is seen as morally wrong.

Analyzes sports in the context of societal power dynamics, looking at how sports can perpetuate or challenge social inequalities.

Critiques traditional sports philosophy through the lens of gender equality, investigating how sports practices and ideals perpetuate gender norms and power structures.