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Period: c. 1070 BCE - 350 CE Notable Achievements: Mastery of iron smelting, construction of the pyramids at Meroe, and significant trade in the Nile valley.

Period: c. 100 CE - 940 CE Notable Achievements: Development of Ge'ez script, monumental architecture (stelae) and early adoption of Christianity.

Period: c. 1235 CE - 1600 CE Notable Achievements: Wealth from gold and salt trade; famous for Mansa Musa's pilgrimage to Mecca; Timbuktu was a center of learning.

Period: c. 1464 CE - 1591 CE Notable Achievements: Timbuktu and Djenné were intellectual centers; developed a system of taxation; had a formidable cavalry.

Period: c. 3150 BCE - 30 BCE Notable Achievements: Construction of the pyramids, advancements in mathematics and medicine, and a sophisticated system of hieroglyphs.

Period: c. 814 BCE - 146 BCE Notable Achievements: Maritime trading power, creation of a commercial network across the Mediterranean, and development of the city of Carthage.

Period: c. 300 CE - 1200 CE Notable Achievements: Accumulated wealth by controlling the gold trade; Kumbi Saleh was an important commercial center.

Period: c. 1200 CE - 1450 CE Notable Achievements: Construction of the Great Zimbabwe ruins, a fortified city; trading gold, copper, and ivory.

Period: c. 1180 CE - 1897 CE Notable Achievements: Renowned for its art, especially its bronze sculptures; sophisticated political structure; and strong military.