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Authored 'The Prince', a seminal work on political theory and realpolitik.

Developed the social contract theory, as seen in his book 'Leviathan'.

Contributed to liberal political philosophy and the development of concepts like social contract and property rights.

Argued for the freedom and moral equality of individuals in works like 'The Social Contract'.

Criticized the Catholic Church and advocated for freedom of speech, of religion, and separation of church and state.

Pioneered the telescope, and his astronomical observations supported the heliocentric model.

Defined the laws of motion and universal gravitation, which he used to predict the motion of celestial bodies.

Formulated the laws of planetary motion that corrected the Copernican model.

Developed the scientific method and empiricism, encouraging a systematic and inductive approach to science.

Known as the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', he developed Cartesian coordinate system and emphasized deductive reasoning.

Wrote 'The Wealth of Nations', which laid the foundations for classical free market economic theory.

Advocated a form of pantheism and is known for his systematic approach to ethics, built on a logical deduction from self-evident axioms.

Developed the essay as a literary genre; his work offers insight into a wealth of subjects and an unusual look into the human condition.

His pamphlets, like 'Common Sense' and 'The Rights of Man', influenced American and French revolutions, promoting ideas of republicanism and human rights.

Initiated the Copernican Revolution with his heliocentric model of the solar system, challenging the Ptolemaic system.

English playwright and poet whose works like 'Hamlet' and 'Romeo and Juliet' are considered some of the greatest in the English language.

His works in art, such as 'The Last Supper' and 'Mona Lisa', signify the pinnacle of Renaissance art, and his numerous notebooks revealed a polymathic interest in various subjects.

Known for articulating the theory of separation of powers, which is taken as a fundamental principle for many modern democracies.

Co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie, which aimed to gather all known knowledge and spread Enlightenment ideas.

Initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the practices and doctrines of the Catholic Church, leading to the creation of Protestant churches.

A central Enlightenment figure who developed a skeptical philosophy, influencing empiricism, the philosophy of science, and the philosophy of religion.

Philosopher and political economist who is known for his work on liberty, advocating for individual freedom and the harm principle.

An advocate of women's rights and considered one of the founding feminist philosophers, she wrote 'A Vindication of the Rights of Woman'.

Played a central role in modern philosophy, setting the terms of the epistemological debate with his 'Critique of Pure Reason'.