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Albedo is the measure of the reflectivity of the Earth's surface. Surfaces with high albedo, like ice and snow, reflect most of the incoming sunlight, while dark surfaces with low albedo, such as asphalt roads, absorb more energy. Albedo affects the Earth’s energy balance and climate.

The dew point is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated with water vapor, assuming constant pressure and water vapor content. It is an indicator of the moisture content of the air. Morning dew on grass is an example of the dew point being reached outdoors.

Cloud formation occurs when air becomes saturated, usually as a result of cooling and/or the addition of moisture, leading to condensation and the clustering of tiny water droplets or ice crystals. Cumulus and stratus clouds are common types of clouds resulting from specific atmospheric conditions.

Convection refers to the vertical movement of air masses due to temperature-induced density differences. Warm air rises and cool air sinks, leading to convection currents. Thunderstorms and thermals used by soaring birds and gliders are examples of convection.

Radiation fog occurs at night when the ground cools rapidly by radiation, allowing the air close to the surface to reach its dew point. This type of fog commonly forms in valleys or low-lying areas and usually dissipates after sunrise when the temperature rises. It reduces visibility and can affect transportation.

Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted onto a surface by the weight of the air above that surface in the atmosphere of Earth. For example, it is what causes barometers to move and is a crucial factor in weather patterns and systems like high and low pressure systems.

The Coriolis effect is the apparent deflection of moving objects when they are viewed in a rotating reference frame. On Earth, this causes wind and ocean currents to turn to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. Examples include trade winds, westerlies, and the formation of cyclones.

Tropical cyclones, also known as hurricanes or typhoons depending on their location, are intense circular storms that originate over warm tropical oceans. They are characterized by low pressure centers, high winds, and heavy rain. Examples include Hurricane Katrina and Typhoon Haiyan.

Isotherms are lines on a weather map that connect points with the same temperature. By analyzing isotherm patterns, meteorologists can identify temperature gradients, which are useful for predicting weather fronts and understanding the large-scale movement of air masses. An example is the use in identifying a cold front.

Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the air. It can be expressed as absolute humidity, the mass of water vapor per unit volume; or relative humidity, the ratio of the current absolute humidity to the highest possible absolute humidity at that temperature. Dew points and muggy days are examples of humidity's impact on the weather.

Precipitation is any form of water - liquid or solid - that falls from clouds and reaches the ground. This includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail. The type of precipitation that occurs depends on the temperature profiles in the atmosphere.

The jet stream is a narrow band of strong winds in the upper levels of the atmosphere. These winds can reach speeds of more than 250 miles per hour and have a significant impact on weather patterns and air travel. It can influence the movement of storms and the transfer of air masses.

Monsoons are seasonal wind patterns characterized by a period of heavy rainfall. They are particularly common in South Asia and Africa, where they can bring relief from extreme heat but also cause widespread flooding. The Indian Monsoon is one of the most well-known examples.

ENSO is a recurring climate pattern involving changes in the temperature of waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. El Niño and La Niña, representing the oscillation’s warm and cool phases, respectively, have widespread impacts on global climate and weather events.