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Karl Marx - A methodology used to study human societies and their development over time, claiming that historical changes and class struggles are a result of material economic forces.

Karl Popper - A theory or method that emphasizes the significance of history for understanding social, economic, and political trends, often associated with the idea that history follows a certain path or has a predetermined end.

Thomas Carlyle - Suggests that history is largely shaped by the actions of great men, whose wisdom, courage, or charisma enable them to have a disproportionate effect on the course of events.

Ferdinand de Saussure - An intellectual movement that examines the underlying structures inherent in cultural products (such as texts) and uses analytical concepts from linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and other fields to interpret those structures.

Marc Bloch, Lucien Febvre - Historiographical approach focusing on long-term social history, it promotes the study of large geographical areas over long periods and emphasizes the role of geography, material culture, and social structures in the shaping of history.

Ranjit Guha and the Subaltern Studies Group - Focused on the postcolonial societies and the social groups marginalized by colonial discourse, this approach questions established views of history and power.

Giovanni Levi, Carlo Ginzburg - A branch of historiography that places emphasis on cross-examining small units of research, such as individuals, families, or small communities, to extrapolate broader insights into the historical epoch.

Various Theorists - A sub-field of anthropology and history that studies the historical experiences of non-Western people, its techniques combine anthropology, history, linguistics, and ethnoarchaeology to understand cultures.

Various Theorists - An optimistic outlook on history that proposes that the human condition has improved over time due to advancements in science, technology, and social organization.

Erik Erikson - The field of study combining the methods of psychology and history to understand the emotional origin of the behavior of individuals and groups.

Jean-François Lyotard, Jacques Derrida - An intellectual stance that critiques Western ideologies, including those surrounding history, emphasizing the subjective nature of knowledge and power relations embedded in discourse and culture.

Aristotle - A reason or explanation for something as a function of its end, purpose, or goal, rather than as a function of its cause. Often applied to historical processes, assuming they are directive, goal-oriented, or purposive in nature.

Various Theorists - A critical approach to history that seeks to reinterpret the past from a female perspective and challenge the traditional male-dominated historiography.

Various Theorists - A method of historical documentation, using interviews with people having personal knowledge of past events to provide a more inclusive and personalized account of history that includes a variety of voices.

Auguste Comte - A philosophical theory that information derived from logical and mathematical treatments and reports of sensory experience is the exclusive source of all authoritative knowledge, with a strong emphasis on the scientific method.

Edward Said, Homi K. Bhabha - An approach that seeks to examine the lasting impact of colonialism in former colonies and challenge the historical narratives that have been dominated by Eurocentric perspectives.

Various Theorists - The concept that civilizations or history follows a repetitive cycle of birth, growth, decay, and renewal, influenced by the nature of change over time.

Herbert Butterfield - The approach to history that presents the past as an inevitable progression towards ever greater liberty and enlightenment, culminating in modern forms of liberal democracy and constitutional monarchy.

G.W.F. Hegel - Posits that historical events are the result of conflicting or interacting forces, ideas, or classes, leading to a synthesis over time through a process of thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.