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Collective memory theorists suggest shared memories shape societal narratives. Critics argue that collective memory can distort facts for identity or political purposes. Constructivists highlight how collective memories evolve and adapt over time.

Teleological views, such as those of Hegel or Fukuyama, consider history to have a direction toward an end state. Cyclical theories suggest history repeats itself and has no end. Existentialists reject the idea of a predetermined historical endpoint, emphasizing human freedom and contingency.

Determinists believe historical events are fixed and inevitable due to causal laws. Existentialists argue for individual agency shaping history. Historians following the chaos theory suggest that history is unpredictable and sensitive to initial conditions.

Hegel suggested that 'the owl of Minerva spreads its wings only with the falling of the dusk,' meaning full understanding comes only retrospectively. Narrative theorists argue that individuals create meaning through storytelling. Others posit that future events can provide new understandings of past history.

Pragmatists like Dewey believe that studying history can prevent future mistakes. Critics argue that historical situations are unique and cannot teach specific lessons for the future. Constructivists may say that each generation reinterprets history according to contemporary values.

Philosophical historicists believe in the predictive power of understanding ideological trends. Skeptics warn against the fallacy of drawing linear predictions in a complex world. Futurists may argue that while history informs, it must be balanced with emerging trends and theoretical insights.

Biographical historians prioritize individuals and their actions. Structural historians argue for the analysis of social, economic, and political structures. A synthetical approach might integrate both, considering how individuals operate within and influence structures.

Scientific historians advocate for methodological rigor and empirical evidence. Artistic narratives emphasize the storytelling aspect of history. Some see historiography as a blend of both, using rigorous methods to craft compelling narratives.

Some argue that historians objectively report facts. Others assert that historians craft narratives and thus shape history. Critical theorists contend that historians not only record but actively participate in the power dynamics of historiography.

Technological determinists argue that technology is the primary driver of historical change. Social constructivists counter that society shapes technological development. Synthesis views may believe technology influences society, which in turn shapes further technological advancement.

Teleologists might claim history moves towards an ultimate purpose. Nihilists could argue that history has no inherent meaning, while existentialists maintain that individuals must ascribe their own meaning to historical events.

Empiricists strive for objective accounts based on verifiable facts. Narrativists argue that history is inherently a narrative with subjective elements. Critical historians suggest that all history reflects the perspective and bias of the historian.

The classic view, as in Cicero, suggests that history teaches moral lessons and wisdom. Pragmatists like Dewey argue history is essential for understanding social practices. Postmodernists may claim that the moral lessons of history are contingent and constructed, not essential.

Marxist historians emphasize how ruling classes shape historical narratives. Foucauldian analysis explores the relationship between knowledge and power. Subaltern studies focus on the histories of the oppressed, often left out of mainstream narratives.

Spengler and Toynbee suggested that civilizations go through life cycles. Historical materialism proposes that patterns are determined by economic conditions. Foucault's analysis suggests that patterns are created by discourses of power throughout history.

Linear time suggests a sequential, cause-effect understanding of history. Cyclical conceptions of time encompass repeating patterns and epochs. A-relationalist theorists assert that the nature of time itself is a human construct and differently perceived across cultures.

The Hegelian view suggests that history unfolds through a dialectical process toward freedom. The Marxist perspective adds that this unfolds through class struggle leading to a classless society. Postmodernist views may argue that progress is a narrative construction and not inherent in history.

Positivists might assert that objective history can be known through empirical evidence and facts. Postmodernists would question this, claiming objectivity is impossible due to biases and narrative constructions. Hermeneutic philosophers suggest that understanding history requires interpreting events, inherently subjective.

The Great Man theory posits that history is driven by the actions of remarkable individuals. Structuralism argues that underlying structures determine historical events, minimizing individual agency. Hybrid theories may recognize the role of individuals within the constraints of larger structures.

Moral realists contend that absolute moral truths can be derived from historical patterns. Relativists believe that morals change with cultural contexts over time. Critical theory suggests that history reveals the struggles for power and dominance rather than universal morals.

Some historians using chaos theory acknowledge that while history appears chaotic, it may still conform to patterns at a macro level. Pattern theorists argue that discernible cycles or trends do exist. Post-structuralists might emphasize the resistance to universalizing patterns, highlighting the individual and contingent nature of events.

Pragmatists may encourage learning from historical analogies to inform present actions. Critics warn against oversimplification and the unique context of historical events. Postmodernists suggest that analogies are constructs that reflect current ideologies more than historical truths.

Voluntarists emphasize human will and agency. Economic determinists attribute historical developments to economic forces. Geopolitical theorists may point to environmental factors and geographic determinism.

Ethical historians assert that respect for subjects and their descendants is paramount. Relativists might argue that current ethical standards should not be imposed on historical interpretations. Critical theorists may emphasize that ethical studies should reveal power structures and injustices.