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Increased stress and aggression; feelings of helplessness in densely populated areas; Example: Increased rate of social withdrawal in highly populated cities like Tokyo.

Elevated stress hormones, sleep disturbances, and reduced task performance; Example: Higher prevalence of hypertension among residents near airports.

Improved mental health, decreased depression rates, and increased social cohesion; Example: Reduced stress among individuals residing near parks in London.

Decreased sense of community, elevated fear of crime, and increased feelings of neglect; Example: Higher anxiety and depression in economically declining neighborhoods such as Detroit.

Displacement stress, identity loss among long-time residents, and reduced social capital; Example: Cultural shifts causing community tension in San Francisco's Mission District.

Increased physical activity fostering better mood and cognitive function; Example: Higher rates of walking and cycling in pedestrian-friendly cities like Amsterdam.

Cognitive impairment, exacerbated mental health issues, and stress-related disorders; Example: Increased cases of depression linked to air quality in Beijing.

Disruption of circadian rhythms, increased sleep disorders, and mood disorders; Example: Higher insomnia rates in cities with extensive nighttime lighting such as Las Vegas.

Loneliness and its associated risks including increased mortality, despite being surrounded by large populations; Example: ‘Urban loneliness’ phenomenon in cities like New York.