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Cynicism generally refers to the belief that people are motivated purely by self-interest rather than acting for honorable reasons, while optimism is an inclination to put the most favorable construction upon actions and events or to anticipate the best possible outcome.

Materialism holds that matter is the fundamental substance in nature, and idealism believes that reality is mentally constructed.

Structuralism argues that human culture can be understood by its structures, whereas poststructuralism challenges and seeks to deconstruct these structures.

Skepticism is the philosophical attitude of doubting the truth of something, whereas dogmatism is the tendency to lay down principles as undeniably true, without consideration of evidence or the opinions of others.

Atheism is the absence of belief in the existence of deities, while theism is the belief in at least one deity as the creator and overseer of the universe.

Analytic philosophy is characterized by a focus on logical analysis and argumentation, while continental philosophy tends towards historical, social, and existential matters.

Natural Law theory asserts that certain rights or values are inherent in or universally cognizable by virtue of human reason or human nature, while Legal Positivism holds that law is made valid by its sources, without reference to moral considerations.

Existentialism posits that individuals create the meaning of their own lives, while nihilism contends that life has no inherent purpose or value.

Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, while transhumanism seeks to transform the human condition by developing technologies to enhance intellectual, physical, and psychological capacities.

Absolutism posits that certain things are universally true, while relativism asserts that points of view have no absolute truth or validity, having only relative, subjective value.

Dualism is the belief that reality consists of two fundamental components, often mind and matter, whereas monism posits that there is only one substance or principle as the ground of reality.

Romanticism was a reaction against the Enlightenment and its emphasis on reason, advocating for emotional expression and the glorification of nature, while the Enlightenment focused on intellectual interchange and the scientific method.

Logical Positivism maintains that meaningful philosophical statements must be either logically provable or empirically verifiable, and postmodernism denies the existence of any ultimate principles, often asserting that truths are relative and contingent.

Utilitarianism is focused on the consequences of actions and maximizing happiness, deontology is based on rules and duties that are right in themselves.

Pragmatism suggests that the truth of beliefs consists in their practical utility and success rather than their correspondence with reality, while rationalism emphasizes the role of reason in the apprehension of truth.

Rationalism relies on reason as the primary source of knowledge, while empiricism emphasizes sensory experience.

Determinism claims that all events are determined by causes external to the will, while believers in free will hold that our choices are exercised autonomously.

Stoicism teaches self-control and fortitude as a means to overcome destructive emotions, whereas Epicureanism claims that the pursuit of pleasure and avoiding pain are the central goals of life.

Consequentialism judges morality based on outcomes, whereas virtue ethics focuses on moral character and the virtues that a good person should have.