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This theory suggests that media audiences do not just receive information passively but actively process it, making meaning based on individual social contexts.

Focuses on how audiences make meaning from media texts and bring their own experiences and emotions to the interpretation of these texts.

Developed by Stuart Hall, this model outlines how media messages are encoded by media producers and decoded by audiences in various ways, such as dominant, negotiated, or oppositional readings.

Assumes that audiences actively seek out media to satisfy specific needs and desires, such as entertainment, information, personal identity, and social integration.

Suggests that long-term exposure to consistent media messages, particularly television, shapes viewers' perceptions of reality.

Media doesn't tell us what to think, but it is successful in telling us what to think about. The media sets the agenda for public discourse.

Individuals tend to perceive that mass communicated media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.

Proposes that media effects are indirectly established through opinion leaders, who initially consume media content and then act as intermediaries to influence others.

Argues that individuals who perceive their views as being in the minority are less likely to express them publicly for fear of social isolation.