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Historical Significance: Center of Catholicism and the Renaissance; involved in Italian and European politics. Rulers: The Pope, including Julius II, known as the 'Warrior Pope'.

Historical Significance: Massive empire that spanned three continents, influenced European and Islamic politics and culture. Rulers: Suleiman the Magnificent was the most famous sultan of this period.

Historical Significance: Maintained independence from England, underwent its own Renaissance. Rulers: James IV and James V were notable monarchs of this period.

Historical Significance: Major trade and naval power, important center for arts and culture. Rulers: Governed by the Doge of Venice, a position once held by Enrico Dandolo.

Historical Significance: Unification and global empire establishment, expulsion of Moors and Jews. Rulers: Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, Charles V.

Historical Significance: Major European power, development of absolutism, involved in Italian Wars. Rulers: King Francis I, who was a major patron of the arts and initiated the French Renaissance.

Historical Significance: Pioneer of the Age of Discovery and maritime exploration, established a global trading empire. Rulers: King Manuel I, under whom the Portuguese Empire reached its zenith.

Historical Significance: Creation of the Church of England under Henry VIII, naval power, and colonization. Rulers: Tudor dynasty, including Henry VIII and Elizabeth I.

Historical Significance: Loose federation of various principalities and kingdoms, pivotal player in European affairs. Rulers: Charles V was one of the most prominent emperors during this period.