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Using the conclusion of an argument as a premise in the same argument. Example: 'I am truthful because everything I say is true.'

Drawing a general conclusion from a small or unrepresentative sample. Example: 'I met two people from X country and they were rude, so everyone from there must be rude.'

Using praise to disguise a lack of real evidence in an argument. Example: 'As an intelligent person, you can see why this plan is flawless.'

Changing the criteria for a conclusion or point of contention after it has been met. Example: 'Even though the product meets the safety standards you said were necessary, now you say those standards are not enough.'

Assuming that because something is new, it must be better than something older. Example: 'This software must be better because it was released last week.'

Judging something as either good or bad on the basis of where it comes from, or from whom it comes. Example: 'This painting can't be worth much; it was done by an unknown artist.'

Selectively presenting only evidence that supports your argument while ignoring evidence to the contrary. Example: 'Research shows that chocolate is healthy!' neglecting studies that highlight negative effects.

Presenting two opposite options as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist. Example: 'We must either cut education funding or face economic ruin.'

Arguing without evidence that taking a particular step will inevitably lead to a chain of negative events. Example: 'If we allow students to use calculators, they'll become too dependent and never learn basic math skills.'

Using the audience's sympathy, concern, or guilt to persuade them to agree with the argument. Example: 'She's been through so much lately, we should let her off the hook for losing the money.'

Continuing a behavior or endeavor as a result of previously invested resources (time, money or effort). Example: 'I've been at this job for so long, I can't quit now - even though I'm miserable.'

Comparing minor misdeeds with major atrocities, suggesting that both are equally immoral. Example: 'Those who download music illegally are no better than those who commit grand theft.'

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Example: 'People who support space exploration must hate solving problems on Earth.'

Assuming that because one event occurred after another, the first event must have caused the second. Example: 'The rooster crows before sunrise; therefore, the rooster's crowing causes the sun to rise.'

Asserting that the lack of evidence is itself evidence for or against a claim. Example: 'The lack of messages from aliens proves that interstellar travel is not possible.'

Attacking the person making the argument rather than the argument itself. Example: 'You can't believe John's argument on climate change; he failed high school science.'

Assuming that something is better or correct simply because it is older, traditional, or 'always has been done.' Example: 'This medicine must be good because people have been using it for centuries.'

Asking a question that contains an assumption within it, so that any answer would seem to endorse that assumption. Example: 'Have you stopped cheating on your exams?'

Arguing that the burden of proving a claim rests on someone else, not the person advocating it. Example: 'Prove that ghosts do not exist, otherwise they must.'

Claiming something is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa. Example: 'Since you cannot disprove the existence of Bigfoot, he must exist.'

Diverting attention away from the original argument by introducing a separate issue. Example: 'Why worry about surveillance when we have so many people living in poverty?'

Making an argument by increasing fear and prejudice towards the opposing side. Example: 'If you don't support this policy, you'll put our nation at risk.'

Discrediting an opponent's argument by asserting their failure to act consistently with the content of their argument. Example: 'How can you argue for vegetarianism when you wear leather shoes?'

Using a double meaning or ambiguity of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth. Example: 'The sign said 'fine for parking here,' so I parked there.'

Comparing two things that are not really comparable in relevant respects. Example: 'Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to work, so must employees.'

Avoiding having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser. Example: 'You can't accuse me of being selfish; you haven't volunteered a single day in your life.'

Arguing that a claim is true because an authority or expert agrees with it, without presenting the evidence behind the claim. Example: 'This energy drink must be healthy because a famous athlete endorses it.'

Arguing that one must accept or reject an argument because of everyone else who accepts it or rejects it. Example: 'Everyone is buying this phone; it must be the best one available.'

Modifying the subject of a claim to exclude a counterexample and protect a universal generalization. Example: 'No Scotsman would drink wine. And if he does, then he's not a true Scotsman.'