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The hypothesis that language determines the way we think and view the world. Example: The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that speakers of different languages experience the world differently.

The process by which one language takes words from another language. Example: The English word 'ballet,' which is borrowed from French.

The study of how sentences in spoken and written language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. Example: Analyzing political speeches to understand how leaders form persuasive arguments.

A situation where two distinct dialects or languages are used by a single language community under different circumstances. Example: The use of Standard Arabic for formal situations and a local dialect in everyday conversation.

The study of a language at a particular point in time, as opposed to its historical development. Example: Analyzing contemporary French slang.

The study of the changes in language over time. Example: Tracing the history and evolution of the English language from Old English to Modern English.

A mild or indirect word or expression substituted for one considered to be too harsh or blunt when referring to something unpleasant or embarrassing. Example: Using 'passed away' instead of 'died'.

A dialect or variety of a language that is associated with a particular ethnic group. Example: African American Vernacular English (AAVE).

The respect and status attributed to a language or dialect as compared to others, often related to the social position of its speakers. Example: The high prestige of French in diplomatic contexts.

The branch of linguistics dealing with language in use and the contexts in which it is used, including such matters as deixis, taking turns in conversation, text organization, presupposition, and implicature. Example: Understanding that 'Can you pass the salt?' is a request, not a question about ability.

Beliefs and conceptions about language structure and use, which often serve to establish and justify social distinctions. Example: The belief that 'standard' language variants are inherently superior to 'non-standard' ones.

The principle suggesting that the structure of a language affects its speakers' world view or cognition. Example: Variations in color perception and vocabulary among different languages.

Deliberate efforts to influence the function, structure, or acquisition of a language within a speech community. Example: Imposing an official language for government and education.

Specialized language used by a particular profession or group, often difficult for others to understand. Example: Medical jargon like 'hypertension' for high blood pressure.

Language or dialects viewed as 'higher status' by a speech community and associated with wealth, education, and power. Example: The widespread teaching of 'The Queen's English' as a standard of correctness.

The process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate. Example: A child learning their first language through interaction with family.

The practice of alternating between two or more languages or dialects in conversation. Example: A bilingual speaker using Spanish phrases while speaking mostly in English.

The use of two or more languages either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Example: Switzerland, where German, French, Italian, and Romansh are spoken.

The practice of adjusting one's speech style to match or differentiate from the person one is speaking to. Example: Speaking more formally to a person in authority.

Body of law, regulation, or practices that govern how languages are used within a particular country or region. Example: India's policy recognising multiple official languages.

Words or phrases that are avoided because they are considered offensive, embarrassing, or socially inappropriate. Example: Profanities or vulgarisms that are often censored in the media.

The level of formality or informality expressed in language use, often adjusted based on the social setting. Example: Using formal language at a job interview versus casual language with friends.

Distinctive modes of pronunciation of a language, especially those that identify regional or social origins of the speaker. Example: The distinct pronunciation of 'r' in Scottish English.

Efforts to bring back a dead or dying language by encouraging new generations to learn and speak it. Example: The revitalization of the Hebrew language.

The practice of identifying the social characteristics of an individual based on auditory cues in their speech. Example: Discrimination or assumptions based on hearing someone's accent.

A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary. Example: The use of 'y'all' in Southern American English.

Simplified languages that develop as a means of communication between speakers of different native languages. Example: Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea.

Efforts made by speakers of a language to continue speaking their language, often in the face of pressure to assimilate to another language. Example: Welsh speakers in Wales promoting the use of Welsh.

A group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language. Example: A group of teenagers using slang that is understood among them.

Language reflecting the social constructions of gender roles and differences. Example: The use of gender-specific job titles such as 'fireman' or 'stewardess'.

The study of how language varies and changes in social groups and the effects of language use on society. Example: Analyzing the different dialects within a region.

Opinions, ideas, and prejudices that speakers have about languages or dialects. Example: The perception that the Received Pronunciation accent in England conveys high social status.

Stable natural languages that have developed from a pidgin and are spoken natively by a community. Example: Haitian Creole, which evolved from French-based pidgin used in Haiti.

The process by which a community of speakers abandons their native language for another language. Example: The gradual dominance of English over Gaelic in Scotland.

The process by which a language falls out of use and loses its last native speakers. Example: The extinction of the Eyak language in Alaska.