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Year: 1497-1499, Description: Vasco da Gama led the first naval expedition from Europe to India, opening an important commercial sea route. Significance: This marked a new phase of global interactions as it opened the sea route to Asia, drastically changing global trade patterns.

Year: 1492, Description: Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer, set sail under the Spanish flag aiming for Asia but instead landed in the Caribbean. Significance: His voyage led to the European awareness of the American continents, initiating widespread exploration and eventual colonization.

Year: 1494, Description: The Treaty signed between Spain and Portugal divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. Significance: The agreement sought to resolve disputes over newly discovered lands and laid the foundation for Portuguese and Spanish colonial empires.

Year: 1519-1522, Description: Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer, led the Spanish expedition that was the first to sail from the Atlantic Ocean into the Pacific Ocean and circumnavigate the Earth. Significance: Magellan's voyage provided clear proof that the Earth is round and considerably large, and it greatly expanded European navigation knowledge.

Years: Started in the 15th century, Description: The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus's voyages. Significance: It has radically altered ecosystems and global populations, with long-lasting biological and social consequences.

Year: 1453, Description: The capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople, was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. Significance: Marked the end of the Middle Ages and spurred European exploration by seeking new trade routes to Asia as access to traditional routes was cut.

Year: 1492, Description: Christopher Columbus discovered lands in the Western Hemisphere that were previously unknown to the Old World. Significance: This event reshaped world history by leading to the exploration and eventual colonization of the Americas.

Years: Early 16th century, Description: Spanish ‘Conquistadors’ such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro conquered large territories in the Americas, including the Aztec and Incan empires. Significance: This led to the dominion of Spain over much of the Western Hemisphere and the integration of the Americas into the global trade network.

Year: 1565, Description: The maritime trade route connected the Spanish East Indies, now the Philippines, with Acapulco in Mexico across the Pacific. Significance: The Manila Galleons were key in facilitating the exchange of goods (such as silver and spices), ideas, and cultures between Asia and the Americas.

Year: Early 16th century, Description: Sugarcane, originally from Southeast Asia, was introduced to the Caribbean and South America by European colonizers. Significance: It led to the development of the sugar plantations and the growth of the transatlantic slave trade to meet the labor demands.

Year: 1454-1455, Description: Johannes Gutenberg introduced movable-type printing to Europe, and his press produced the first major book printed using mass-produced movable metal type in Europe. Significance: Marked the start of the 'Gutenberg Revolution' and the age of the printed book in the West.

Year: 15th century, Description: The caravel, a small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese, was used to explore the West African coast and into the Atlantic Ocean. Significance: The design of the caravel allowed Portuguese explorers to sail further and faster, leading to the exploration of new worlds.

Year: 1493, Description: Christopher Columbus established the Spanish settlement of La Isabela on Hispaniola during his second voyage. Significance: It marked the beginning of the permanent European colonization of the Americas.

Year: 1488, Description: Bartolomeu Dias was the first European to sail around the southernmost tip of Africa, opening the way for a sea route from Europe to Asia. Significance: The route significantly reduced the sailing distance between Europe and Asia, benefiting trade and geopolitical strategies.

Year: 1517, Description: Martin Luther nailed his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the Wittenberg Castle church, criticizing the Roman Catholic Church's practices. Significance: Sparked the Protestant Reformation, which led to the rise of Protestant denominations and reshaped the religious and political landscape of Europe.

Years: 1519-1521, Description: Led by Hernán Cortés, a Spanish expedition caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of what is now mainland Mexico under Spanish rule. Significance: The event marked a significant phase in the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the expansion of the Spanish Empire.

Year: 1509, Description: A naval battle fought between a coalition of Portuguese forces and a mixed fleet of Egyptian, Ottoman, and Indian vessels in Diu, India. Significance: This Portuguese victory confirmed their naval dominance of Indian waters, facilitating Portugal’s control over the spice trade.

Years: 16th century, Description: Maize (corn) and potatoes, native to the Americas, were introduced to Europe after the voyages of Columbus. Significance: They became staple crops in Europe, leading to significant population growth and changes in agriculture.

Year: 1545, Description: The massive silver mines at Potosí, in modern-day Bolivia, were discovered and exploited by the Spanish. Significance: The wealth extracted financed the Spanish Empire and fueled global trade, but at great human cost due to the exploitation of indigenous labor.