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Primitive material monism, posited air as the primary substance, simple cosmology.

Believed all matter composed of four roots: earth, air, fire, and water; concept of Love and Strife as fundamental cosmic forces.

Theory of Forms, Platonic idealism, foundation of Western political philosophy.

Socratic method, importance of ethical living, knowledge as virtue.

Sophism, relativism, 'Man is the measure of all things'.

Cynicism, simple living, defying conventional desires for wealth, power, and fame.

Criticized anthropomorphic gods, proposed a form of monotheism or pantheism, theology and epistemology.

Proposed water as the originating principle of nature, geometric theorems, astronomer and engineer.

Empiricism, virtue ethics, foundational works in numerous fields of science and philosophy.

Founded Stoicism, philosophy of inner peace and resilience, logic as a part of philosophy.

Doctrine of change being central to the universe, 'Logos', fire as primary substance.

Atomism, philosophical skepticism, determinism and necessity.

Introduced the concept of Nous (Mind or Intellect) as the ordering principle of the cosmos, cosmogony, and the theory of appearances.

Introduced the concept of the 'apeiron' (the unlimited or infinite), early attempt to describe the origin of the universe, evolutionary ideas.

Founder of Cynicism, ascetic lifestyle, virtue is the only necessity for happiness.

Pythagoreanism, belief in the transmigration of souls, mathematical relations in music and astronomy.

Epicureanism, pursuit of happiness through modest pleasures, friendship, and philosophical contemplation.

Sophist, nihilism or extreme skepticism, persuasive rhetoric over truth.

Philosophy of monism, 'being' as the center of philosophical inquiry, rejection of sensory experience.