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Empiricism is the philosophy of science view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observation. It's relevant because it shapes how scientific inquiry is conducted, emphasizing experimentation and observation.

Falsifiability is a criterion proposed by Karl Popper for deciding whether a theory is scientific. It must be possible to conceive of an observation or argument which could negate the theory. Falsifiability is a cornerstone of many scientific theories as it allows them to be tested and potentially refuted.

A paradigm shift refers to a fundamental change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline, as detailed by Thomas Kuhn in his work on the structure of scientific revolutions. It's relevant for understanding the process of scientific change and progress.

Deduction is a logical process where a specific conclusion follows necessarily from a set of premises. In science, it's important because it can be used to derive hypotheses and predictions from fundamental theories.

Induction is a process of reasoning that involves drawing general conclusions from specific examples or data. In science, it's used to formulate theories and general laws from experimental observations and is therefore essential for the development of scientific knowledge.

Underdetermination refers to the idea that empirical data alone may not determine the choice between competing theories. This highlights the role of theoretical virtues like simplicity and coherence in theory choice and the importance of extra-empirical criteria in science.

Positivism is a philosophical ideology which asserts that only empirical knowledge gained through direct experience, observation, and experiment is meaningful. It has significantly influenced the development of the scientific method and the separation of science from metaphysics.

Scientific realism is the view that the entities and processes described by successful scientific theories exist independently of our mind. This perspective is central to debates about whether science is discovering truths about the world or merely constructing useful fictions.

Instrumentalism is the view that theories are merely tools or instruments for predicting and controlling phenomena, not necessarily true descriptions of reality. In the philosophy of science, it's relevant in discussions about the purpose of scientific theories.

Constructivism in the philosophy of science asserts that scientific knowledge is constructed by scientists and not discovered from the world. It claims that societal, cultural, and personal factors influence scientific research. It's relevant in discussions about the objectivity and neutrality of science.

Empirical adequacy is a concept in the philosophy of science where a theory is empirically adequate if its predictions are borne out by observation and experiment. It is central to Bas van Fraassen's constructive empiricism, where empirical adequacy, not truth, is the aim of science.

Confirmation holism, advocated by Quine, is the view that individual hypotheses cannot be tested in isolation but only as part of a whole theory or body of beliefs. It's relevant because it affects how evidence is understood to support scientific theories.

The scientific method is the systematic observation, measurement, experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. It's the backbone of scientific investigation and crucial for progress in scientific knowledge.

Theory-ladenness of observation is the idea that what we observe is influenced by the theories and concepts we hold. Thus, observations are not purely objective but are affected by our expectations and beliefs, relevant for understanding the interplay between theory and observation in science.

Pseudoscience refers to practices and beliefs mistakenly regarded as scientific due to a lack of adherence to proper scientific methods or principles. It's important for distinguishing between genuine scientific research and non-scientific or fraudulent practices.

Scientific progress is the cumulative development in the understanding, knowledge, and application of scientific methods and principles over time. It's fundamental to the philosophy of science as it raises questions about how and why science advances.

The rationality of science refers to the argument that scientific practices and methodologies are based on reason and logic. This is key to understanding and justifying the reliability and authority of scientific knowledge.

In philosophy of science, the distinction between observation and experiment involves actively manipulating variables (experiment) versus passively recording data (observation). This delineation is crucial for understanding different methods of acquiring scientific data.

Naturalism in philosophy of science posits that science is the most reliable means of acquiring knowledge and that scientific methods should be applied to all areas of inquiry. Its relevance comes from its application to both the natural and social sciences.

Reductionism is the idea that complex phenomena can and should be understood in terms of simpler elements or fundamental principles of science. This concept is particularly relevant in debates about the nature of explanations in science across different levels of complexity.

A scientific explanation is a description of how and why a certain phenomenon occurs as it does according to scientific principles. It is crucial in philosophy of science, as it addresses the communicative and descriptive aspects of science.