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Principle of operation: DMFCs directly use methanol as a fuel, which is mixed with water and fed into the anode. A chemical reaction takes place that separates methanol into protons and electrons. The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode, whereas the electrons create a current through an external circuit. Typical use: Portable power applications, consumer electronics.

Principle of operation: SOFCs use a solid ceramic electrolyte that conducts negative oxygen ions from the cathode to the anode. Here, they react with hydrogen to form water and release electrons, which flow back to the cathode through an external circuit, producing electricity. Typical use: Stationary power generation, large-scale power plants.

Principle of operation: PEM fuel cells operate by passing hydrogen through the anode, where it is split into protons and electrons. The protons move through the membrane to the cathode while the electrons travel through an external circuit, creating an electric current. They recombine with the protons and oxygen at the cathode to form water. Typical use: Portable power applications, backup power, and transportation.