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Refers to a system of beliefs and ideals, especially those which form the basis of economic or political theory and policy. In literature, George Orwell's '1984' explores the concept of ideology as the Party imposes its reality on the citizens, demonstrating how beliefs can be used to control a population.

The ideologies, cultural norms, and social institutions (like legal systems and religion) that arise from and help to maintain the economic base. In literature, the values and norms in Tolstoy's 'Anna Karenina' reflect the superstructure of its time, as influenced by the Russian feudal economy.

A philosophy of science and nature developed by Karl Marx, which suggests that all change in society is driven by a dialectical conflict between opposing interests, usually class-related. Bertolt Brecht's plays often deal with social issues through a dialectical approach, inviting the audience to consider different perspectives and to foster social change.

An art and literature movement focused on realistic depiction of social issues and conditions. It is aligned with Marxist thought in its attempt to shine a light on class struggle, such as in 'Grapes of Wrath' by John Steinbeck, which details the plight of migrant farmworkers.

A central concept in Marxist theory where the oppressor and oppressed are in constant conflict over resources and power. It's exemplified in literature like Steinbeck's 'The Grapes of Wrath', which depicts the struggle between the impoverished migrant workers and the wealthy landowners.

Refers to the class of wage earners, especially in industrial societies, who do not own the means of production and whose only significant material value is their labor. In Jack London's 'The Iron Heel', the proletariat struggle against the oligarchic ruling class is a central theme.

The fusion of theory and practice, where action is taken to change society in accordance with socialist principles. In 'Doctor Zhivago' by Boris Pasternak, revolutionary praxis is embodied in the characters who are caught up in the Russian Revolution and seek to apply their political ideals.

A concept that asserts the primacy of the material conditions of life in the development of human societies. In 'Les Misérables' by Victor Hugo, historical materialism is reflected in the depiction of social and economic struggles driving the narrative and character actions.

In Marxist economics, capital is the means of production owned by the bourgeoisie that can create surplus value through exploitation of the proletariat. In Émile Zola's novel 'Germinal', the mine owners' capital is accumulated at the expense of the workers' safety and dignity.

A Marxist concept where the ruling class manipulates the culture of a society to create and establish norms and mores that enforce their dominance. In 'To Kill a Mockingbird' by Harper Lee, racial hegemony is demonstrated through the societal expectations and laws that maintain racial inequality.

A Marxist term where the proletariat's perception of reality is engineered by the bourgeoisie to mask exploitation. An example in literature is Arthur Miller's 'Death of a Salesman', where Willy Loman believes in the American Dream despite the exploitation and hardships he faces.

The process by which social relations are perceived as characteristics of things rather than as human actions and relationships. This concept is explored in the works of Georg Lukács, who critiques the objectification of human experiences within capitalist societies.

The doctrine that material success and progress are the highest values in life. F. Scott Fitzgerald's 'The Great Gatsby' examines the destructive nature of materialism in the pursuit of the American Dream.

The social relationships that people must enter into with each other in order to survive and produce society’s means of existence. They are examined in works like 'North and South' by Elizabeth Gaskell, which contrasts the relationships of factory workers and owners in an industrial society.

A literary movement that aims to represent everyday realities, often focusing on the lives of the middle or lower classes. As a Marxist concept, literary realism can uncover the socioeconomic forces at play in society as seen in the novels by Émile Zola.

The capitalist class who own most of society's wealth and means of production. In 'Pride and Prejudice' by Jane Austen, the bourgeois characters are preoccupied with property, inheritance, and social status.

A term used by Marx to describe the underclass devoid of class consciousness due to their discontinuity with the productive economy. In Steinbeck's 'Of Mice and Men', characters like Lennie and George can be seen as members of the lumpenproletariat, marginalized by their lack of consistent employment.

A condition in which workers are disconnected from the products of their labor, the act of production, and their own humanity. In Franz Kafka's 'The Metamorphosis', Gregor Samsa's transformation is a profound metaphor for the alienation of the modern worker.

Refers to the physical and non-human inputs used for the production of economic value, such as factories and machinery. Upton Sinclair's 'The Jungle' focuses on the means of production in the meatpacking industry, revealing the harsh realities faced by workers.

The excess of value produced by the labor of workers over the wages they are paid. In 'The Jungle' by Upton Sinclair, the surplus value created by the meatpacking workers enriches the industry magnates while the workers live in poverty.

A term describing the self-awareness of a social class of its place in the class structure and its collective interest for change. 'The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists' by Robert Tressell explores the development of class consciousness among workers as they recognize their exploitation.

A philosophical position that explains social phenomenon in terms of economic factors. Thomas Hardy's 'Tess of the d'Urbervilles' depicts a character whose life is shaped by economic forces, demonstrating economic determinism in her tragic fate.

A concept where the social relationships involved in production are expressed as values of tradeable commodities. This can lead to objects being valued more for their marketability than their use. In 'The Great Gatsby' by F. Scott Fitzgerald, the fetishization of commodities reflects the empty materialism of the American Dream.

Refers to the systemic problems within the capitalist mode of production, such as the disparity between labor and capital. In 'Les Misérables' by Victor Hugo, the contradictions of capitalism are evident in the stark differences between the lives of the poor and the bourgeoisie.