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Indirect effects through food web disruptions, as their prey are affected by changes in ocean chemistry.

The efficiency of the ocean as a carbon sink may decrease, altering global carbon cycling and potentially exacerbating climate change.

Slower growth rates, and structural weakening of coral skeletons, which compromises the integrity of the entire reef ecosystem.

Some species may benefit while others suffer, altering the base of the marine food web and overall ecosystem dynamics.

Economic and food security issues due to declines in shellfish populations and coral reef ecosystems that support fisheries and tourism.

Increased difficulty in building and maintaining calcium carbonate structures like shells and skeletons as a result of decreased pH levels and lower carbonate ion concentrations.