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Agreement between Spain and Portugal aimed at settling conflicts over lands newly discovered by Columbus and other voyagers. Location: Spain and Portugal, 1494. Effects: Division of the New World between the two powers, disregarding indigenous peoples.

Transatlantic slave trade where millions of Africans were transported to the New World as part of the triangular trade. Location: Atlantic Ocean. Effects: Disruption of African societies, demographic changes, and long-term social consequences.

Prohibitions and policies implemented by colonizers to suppress indigenous languages and cultures in favor of the colonizer's language and culture. Locations: Various colonies worldwide. Effects: Loss of cultural identity, erosion of traditional customs, and intergenerational trauma.

Widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries. Location: Americas, Europe, Africa, and Asia. Effects: Introduction of new crops and livestock to the Americas, decimation of indigenous populations by disease.

Dutch settlers, known as Boers, established colonies in what is now South Africa during the 17th century. Location: South Africa. Effects: Conflict and competition over land and resources with indigenous populations.

Labor system instituted by the Spanish crown in the American colonies which granted colonists authority over indigenous peoples. Location: Spanish America. Effects: Forced labor, displacement, and severe population decline among indigenous peoples.

Establishment of British penal colonies in the late 18th century, followed by free settlers. Location: Australia. Effects: Displacement of Aboriginal peoples, spread of diseases, cultural erosion.

Conflict between French and British colonial empires, involving indigenous allies on both sides, leading to the eventual British victory. Location: North America. Effects: Undermined indigenous autonomy, British dominance over North America, huge war debts.

Mass immigration of Chinese labor to the Americas during the 19th century for railroad construction and mining. Location: Americas, notably the United States and Canada. Effects: Displacement and competition for indigenous peoples, racial tensions, and cultural assimilation.

Form of colonialism where the colonizers come to settle permanently in the colonies, often at the expense of indigenous populations. Locations: Americas, Australia, Africa, and Asia. Effects: Land dispossession, cultural assimilation or destruction, establishment of new societal norms.

19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the US throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable. Location: United States. Effects: Expropriation of indigenous lands, indigenous displacement, American continental expansion.

Exporting of the colonizer's educational models and systems to the colonies, replacing indigenous methods of knowledge transmission. Locations: Worldwide colonial territories. Effects: Loss of traditional knowledge, imposition of the colonizer's language and values, assimilation into the colonial culture.

Agricultural production of crops for export to the mother country. Location: Colonial territories worldwide. Effects: Focus on monoculture displaced indigenous agriculture, altered local economies, led to dependence on colonial powers.

Forced relocation and movement of Native American nations from southeastern parts of the United States following the Indian Removal Act of 1830. Location: United States. Effects: Death and displacement of thousands of indigenous people, loss of traditional lands.

An English company formed for the exploitation of trade with East and Southeast Asia and India, incorporated by royal charter in 1600. Location: India and Southeast Asia. Effects: Disruption of traditional economies, introduction of opium trade, establishment of company rule in India.

Portuguese exploration and subsequent settlement in Brazil starting in the 16th century. Location: Brazil. Effects: Exploitation of indigenous peoples for labor, spread of European diseases, cultural and genetic mixing, deforestation.

Christian missionaries from Europe and later the United States evangelizing and establishing missions in indigenous territories. Locations: Worldwide, notably Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Effects: Cultural assimilation, religious conversion, and sometimes resistance from indigenous populations.

Exploitation of rubber trees in South America, particularly in the Amazon rainforest, driven by the demand for rubber in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Location: Brazil and neighboring countries. Effects: Forced labor, environmental destruction, and social disruption for indigenous communities.

Drawing of political boundaries in colonial territories often without regard for the territorial claims or ethnic boundaries of indigenous populations. Locations: Africa, Middle East, Asia, and elsewhere. Effects: Ethnic conflicts, fragmentation of indigenous communities, and ongoing territorial disputes.