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A learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.

A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes.

A cognitive approach to understanding how the human mind ‍transforms‍ sensory information. The model assumes that information that comes from the environment is subject to mental processes beyond a simple stimulus-response pattern.

A theory of learning and social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others.

This theory posits that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. It suggests that learners construct knowledge for themselves—each learner individually (and socially) constructs meaning as he or she learns.

A process through which students develop knowledge, skills, and values from direct experiences outside a traditional academic setting.

A theory that describes the load related to executive control of working memory and suggests that learning happens best under conditions that align with this human cognitive architecture.

A theory of cognition according to which humans process and represent verbal and non-verbal information in separate, related systems. It provides a framework for understanding how verbal and non-verbal cognition work together in forming memories.

A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures.

The difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can do with help. It is a concept introduced by psychologist Lev Vygotsky.

Student-centered pedagogy in which students learn about a subject through the experience of solving an open-ended problem.

An inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem-solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned.

A cognitive theory about information processing which describes the way knowledge is acquired, processed, and utilized, stating that all knowledge is organized into units. Schemas, which are a set of linked mental representations of the world, are believed to be the building blocks of cognition.

A psychological theory that posits that individuals can be motivated to perform or behave in a certain way because they expect a certain outcome and value that outcome.

A psychological theory that attempts to explain how individuals view the cause of an event or behavior by attributing the observed effects to internal or external factors.

A theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow, which outlines a five-tier model of human needs, depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up.

A theory of motivation which is concerned with supporting our natural or intrinsic tendencies to behave in effective and healthy ways. It has been researched and practiced by psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci.

A component of Albert Bandura's social cognitive theory that focuses on an individual’s belief in his or her own abilities to succeed in specific situations or to accomplish a task. It plays a central role in the cognitive process.