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Presenting two options as the only possibilities, when more exist. Example: 'Either you support the war, or you are a traitor to our country.'

Making an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticism or flaws of an argument. Example: 'No true vegan would ever eat a product made with palm oil.'

Arguing that a small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events. Example: 'If we allow same-sex marriage, next thing we know people will be marrying their pets.'

Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the subject of argument. Example: 'Why worry about surveillance? We should be much more concerned with the poverty problem.'

Making a general statement based on a small or unrepresentative sample. Example: 'My brother was mugged in the city; therefore, the city is a very dangerous place.'

Assuming that because one event followed another, the first event caused the second. Example: 'I carried a lucky coin and won the lottery; therefore, the coin must be lucky.'

Attempting to win an argument by appealing to the audience's sympathy, rather than by presenting relevant arguments. Example: 'You have to pass my grade; otherwise, I'll lose my scholarship.'

Using fear to persuade people to act a certain way or to accept an argument. Example: 'If we don't drastically cut our spending, this company will go bankrupt in a year.'

Asserting a position is true because an authority figure says it is, without presenting evidence. Example: 'Well, Isaac Newton believed in alchemy, so it must be a legitimate field of study.'

Attempting to invalidate someone's argument by accusing them of hypocrisy, without addressing the substance of the argument. Example: 'You say smoking is unhealthy, but you used to smoke.'

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Example: 'Senator Jones says we should not fund the new naval base, he clearly hates our country.'

Judging the worth or validity of an idea based on its origin rather than its own merits. Example: 'This app can't be any good, it was created by a company known for bad video games.'

Believing that independent events in a random process affect each other. Example: 'The roulette wheel landed on red six times in a row, so it must be black next time.'

Using an ambiguous term in more than one sense, thus making an argument misleading. Example: 'The sign said 'fine for parking here,' and since it was fine, I parked there.'

Assuming that two situations are equivalent when in fact there is a fundamental difference. Example: 'Refusing to bake a cake for a same-sex couple is the same as refusing service to people of color.'

Assuming that because something is popular, it is therefore true, good, or desirable. Example: 'Everyone is buying this brand of sneakers, so they must be the best choice.'

Attacking the character of the person making an argument, rather than the argument itself. Example: 'You can't believe anything John says about cybersecurity, he didn't even finish high school.'

Claiming something is true because it has not been proven false. Example: 'No one has been able to prove that extraterrestrials aren't visiting earth, so it must be happening.'

When the argument repeats what it's supposed to prove. Example: 'The Bible is the word of God because God tells us it is in the Bible.'