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Asserting a position is true because an authority figure says it is, without presenting evidence. Example: 'Well, Isaac Newton believed in alchemy, so it must be a legitimate field of study.'

Using an ambiguous term in more than one sense, thus making an argument misleading. Example: 'The sign said 'fine for parking here,' and since it was fine, I parked there.'

Attempting to win an argument by appealing to the audience's sympathy, rather than by presenting relevant arguments. Example: 'You have to pass my grade; otherwise, I'll lose my scholarship.'

Attempting to invalidate someone's argument by accusing them of hypocrisy, without addressing the substance of the argument. Example: 'You say smoking is unhealthy, but you used to smoke.'

Arguing that a small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events. Example: 'If we allow same-sex marriage, next thing we know people will be marrying their pets.'

Believing that independent events in a random process affect each other. Example: 'The roulette wheel landed on red six times in a row, so it must be black next time.'

Attacking the character of the person making an argument, rather than the argument itself. Example: 'You can't believe anything John says about cybersecurity, he didn't even finish high school.'

Assuming that two situations are equivalent when in fact there is a fundamental difference. Example: 'Refusing to bake a cake for a same-sex couple is the same as refusing service to people of color.'

Judging the worth or validity of an idea based on its origin rather than its own merits. Example: 'This app can't be any good, it was created by a company known for bad video games.'

Misrepresenting someone's argument to make it easier to attack. Example: 'Senator Jones says we should not fund the new naval base, he clearly hates our country.'

When the argument repeats what it's supposed to prove. Example: 'The Bible is the word of God because God tells us it is in the Bible.'

Assuming that because something is popular, it is therefore true, good, or desirable. Example: 'Everyone is buying this brand of sneakers, so they must be the best choice.'

Claiming something is true because it has not been proven false. Example: 'No one has been able to prove that extraterrestrials aren't visiting earth, so it must be happening.'

Presenting two options as the only possibilities, when more exist. Example: 'Either you support the war, or you are a traitor to our country.'

Making an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticism or flaws of an argument. Example: 'No true vegan would ever eat a product made with palm oil.'

Arguing something is good and correct just because it’s traditional. Example: 'We've always had a male CEO, so a man should be our next CEO.'

Introducing an irrelevant topic to divert attention from the subject of argument. Example: 'Why worry about surveillance? We should be much more concerned with the poverty problem.'

Assuming that because one event followed another, the first event caused the second. Example: 'I carried a lucky coin and won the lottery; therefore, the coin must be lucky.'

Making a general statement based on a small or unrepresentative sample. Example: 'My brother was mugged in the city; therefore, the city is a very dangerous place.'