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Substance Dualism, often attributed to Rene Descartes, is the theory that reality can be divided into two distinct substances: mind and matter. Key elements include the non-physical nature of the mind, and the interactions between mind and body.

Rationalism is the epistemological theory that reason is the chief source of knowledge rather than sensory experience. Key elements include innate knowledge, deductive reasoning, and the belief in the superiority of intellect.

Dual-aspect Theory is the idea that the mental and the physical are two aspects of the same substance. Key elements include the non-separability of the mind and body, and the notion that they are different manifestations of the same underlying reality.

Empiricism is the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience. Key elements include sensory observation, the scientific method, and the idea that the mind is a 'tabula rasa' or blank slate at birth.

Idealism is the metaphysical theory that reality is fundamentally mental, mentally constructed, or otherwise immaterial. Key elements involve the central role of the mind or spirit in understanding the world.

Process Philosophy is an ontological perspective that views reality as a process of becoming rather than a collection of static entities. Key elements include the focus on change and becoming, and the idea that processes are primary over substances.

Relativism is the doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute. Key elements include the idea that there are no universal truths and that perspective determines interpretation.

Realism is the belief that reality exists independently of observers. Key elements include the view that physical objects have an existence independent of the mind, and that truths are discovered rather than invented.

Materialism is the belief that only matter exists and that all things are composed of material and all phenomena (including consciousness) are the result of material interactions. Key elements include the denial of the non-material and focus on the physical world.

Existentialism is a philosophical theory that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice. It posits that individuals are responsible for giving their own lives meaning. Key elements include the concept of the 'absurd', freedom, and authenticity.

Naturalism is the philosophical belief that everything arises from natural properties and causes, and supernatural or spiritual explanations are excluded or discounted. Key elements include the emphasis on laws of nature and the scientific approach to understanding the universe.

Pluralism in metaphysics is the theory that there are many kinds of substance or reality. Key elements include the acceptance of diversity in existence and the belief that no single explanatory system or view of reality can account for all the phenomena of life.

Nominalism is the metaphysical view that abstract concepts, general terms, or universals have no independent existence but exist only as names. Key elements include the rejection of universals and the emphasis on particulars.

Phenomenology is the study of structures of consciousness as experienced from the first-person point of view. Key elements are the reduction of experiences to their pure descriptions and the analysis of phenomena as they are perceived.

Panpsychism is the view that consciousness, mind, or soul is a universal and primordial feature of all things. Key elements include the belief that everything has a form of consciousness and the opposition to the mind-matter dichotomy.

Objectivism is the philosophy developed by Ayn Rand that emphasizes objective reality, rational self-interest, individualism, and laissez-faire capitalism. Key elements include the advocacy of reason as the only means of acquiring knowledge, and the rejection of religious and ethics of self-sacrifice.

Monism is the philosophical view that a variety of existing things can be explained in terms of a single reality or substance. Key elements include the rejection of dualism and pluralism and the idea that there is a unifying principle in nature.

Determinism is the theory that all events, including moral choices, are completely determined by previously existing causes. Key elements include cause-and-effect, lack of free will, and predictability of actions.

Constructivism posits that all knowledge is constructed rather than discovered. It holds that individuals generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. Key elements include the role of perception in knowledge and the idea that understanding is a process of construction.