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G. E. M. Anscombe discusses that cause and effect do not imply necessity or predictability, intertwining causality with human action and freedom.

Ernest Nagel argues that causation can often be understood in terms of probabilities, not deterministic laws, and causal explanations can vary in depth.

J. L. Mackie coined the term 'INUS' condition (an Insufficient but Non-redundant part of an Unnecessary but Sufficient condition) to capture the complexity of causation in real-world contexts.

Immanuel Kant proposed that causality is a category of understanding necessary for making sense of experience, not something we can derive from experience itself.

Russell argued that causation doesn’t reflect the way the world works and is an antiquated concept based on outdated science.

Nancy Cartwright advocates for a version of the regularity theory of causation, which asserts that causal relations are not fundamental but derived from recurring patterns.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz states that nothing happens without a reason, and this underpins his view on causation.

Baruch Spinoza posits that there is only one substance, God or Nature, and causation is an internal process within this single substance.

David Hume argued that our belief in cause and effect is based on habit and custom, not logical deduction or empirical proof.

Phil Dowe's process theory focuses on the physical processes and the conservation laws they obey as the basis for causal relationships.

Aristotle identified four kinds of answers to 'why' questions, which he called 'causes': material, formal, efficient, and final.

Donald Davidson's anomalous monism posits that while mental events are causally related to physical events, there are no strict laws governing the mind.

Karl Popper introduced the propensity interpretation of probability, suggesting that probabilities have a physical tendency to realize certain outcomes.

John Stuart Mill proposed a set of methods to identify causal relationships empirically, such as the Method of Agreement and the Method of Difference.

Stephen Mumford suggests that causation is a matter of the dispositions of entities to behave in certain ways under certain conditions.

David Lewis suggests that causation is to be analyzed in terms of counterfactual conditionals, focusing on ‘closest possible worlds’ where events do not occur.

Roy Bhaskar's critical realism holds that causation is real and must be understood in relation to the structures and mechanisms that produce causal powers.