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Provides logical addressing, routing, and forwarding. Handles packet fragmentation and reassembly.

Provides end-user services and interfaces directly with software applications. Facilitates communication between software applications and lower layers.

Translates data from a format used by the application layer into a common format at the sending station, then back into a format known by the application layer at the receiving station.

Provides node-to-node data transfer, error correction, and flow control. Governs protocol access to the physical network medium.

Provides host-to-host communications, error recovery, and flow control. Ensures complete data transfer.

Transmits raw bit stream over the physical medium, defines electrical and mechanical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.