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Feminist Philosophy
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Simone de Beauvoir
Introduced the idea that one is not born a woman, but becomes one, signifying gender as a societal construct separate from biological sex.
Bell Hooks
Emphasizes intersectionality and the importance of including race, class, and sex as interlocking systems of oppression.
Judith Butler
Known for the theory of gender performativity, which challenges the idea of gender as a stable identity or locus of agency.
Kimberlé Crenshaw
Coined the term 'intersectionality' to describe how race, class, gender, and other individual characteristics 'intersect' with one another and overlap.
Betty Friedan
Her work is credited with sparking the beginning of second-wave feminism in the United States.
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
Known for her essay "Can the Subaltern Speak?", which addresses the inability of the oppressed to be heard within their own context.
Harriet Taylor Mill
Advocated for women's rights and was a significant influence on John Stuart Mill, particularly on his work about the subjugation of women.
Luce Irigaray
Her work focuses on the critique of phallocentrism and the representation of women in western philosophy.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Advocated for women's education and rights in the 18th century and is often regarded as the founder of feminist philosophy.
Audre Lorde
Her work focused on the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality and is a crucial voice in black feminism.
Catharine MacKinnon
Her work focuses on sexual harassment, pornography, and how the law perpetuates gender inequality.
Angela Davis
Known for her work on prison abolition, Black liberation, and the intersections of race, class, and gender.
Julia Kristeva
Introduced the concept of 'intertextuality' and contributed significantly to poststructuralism and psychoanalytic feminism.
Gloria Anzaldúa
Her work is instrumental in Chicano cultural theory and focuses on the concept of mestiza consciousness.
Sandra Harding
Known for her work on the philosophy of science from a feminist perspective, particularly the concepts of 'strong objectivity' and 'standpoint theory'.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
A pioneer of the early women's rights movement who presented the Declaration of Sentiments at the Seneca Falls Convention.
Sylvia Federici
Known for her analysis of capitalism and reproductive labor, especially in her book 'Caliban and the Witch'.
Martha Nussbaum
Developed the 'capabilities approach' to human development, emphasizing what people are able to do and to be.
Carol Gilligan
Known for her critique of Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, asserting that women have a different but equally valid moral reasoning.
Christine de Pizan
A medieval writer who challenged misogyny and stereotypes perpetuated by male writers in works like 'The Book of the City of Ladies'.
Hélène Cixous
Promoted 'écriture féminine' as a form of feminist literary criticism that explores how language and writing can be a space of feminist expression.
Donna Haraway
Best known for the 'Cyborg Manifesto,' which challenges the boundaries between human, animal, and machine as well as feminist identity politics.
Alison Jaggar
Her revolutionary contributions bridge feminist concerns with political philosophy, particularly with moral justifications and critiques of capitalism.
Shulamith Firestone
Explored the connection between the societal enforcement of gender roles and biological reproduction in her landmark work 'The Dialectic of Sex'.
Mary Daly
In her book 'Gyn/Ecology,' she criticized the patriarchy as an oppressive and destructive force against women, advocating for female spaces and language.
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