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Inhibits sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) in the proximal renal tubules, reducing reabsorption of glucose and increasing its excretion in urine.

Inhibits hepatic gluconeogenesis and attenuates intestinal absorption of glucose.

Stimulates pancreatic insulin secretion by closing ATP-dependent potassium channels in pancreatic beta cells.

Increases insulin production from the pancreas by stimulating pancreatic beta cells.

Prevents the breakdown of incretins by inhibiting DPP-4, leading to increased insulin production and decreased glucagon secretion.

Inhibits DPP-4 enzyme, which increases insulin release and decreases glucagon levels during hyperglycemia.

Sulfonylurea that stimulates insulin release by closing potassium channels in pancreatic beta cells.

Activates peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ), improving insulin sensitivity.

Stimulates insulin secretion from pancreatic beta cells.

Stimulates insulin release from pancreatic beta cells by blocking ATP-sensitive potassium channels.

Delays carbohydrate absorption by inhibiting alpha-glucosidase enzymes in the small intestine.

Inhibits intestinal alpha-glucosidases leading to delayed carbohydrate absorption.

DPP-4 inhibitor that enhances glycemic control through increased incretin hormone levels.

Increases insulin release from the pancreas.

Blocks the SGLT2 protein in the kidneys, leading to more glucose being removed through urine.

Increases insulin sensitivity in adipose tissue, muscle, and the liver by activating PPAR-γ.

Inhibits dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), increasing incretin levels which enhance insulin secretion and suppress glucagon release.

Inhibits SGLT2 in the kidneys, enhancing glucose excretion and lowering blood glucose levels.

Mimics the hormone GLP-1 to increase insulin secretion, suppress glucagon release, and slow gastric emptying.