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Purpose: To measure antigen or antibody concentration. Methodology: Antigens are immobilized on a plate, targeted with specific antibodies, and detected with an enzyme-linked secondary antibody producing a colorimetric reaction.

Purpose: To introduce foreign DNA into a host cell. Methodology: Cells are made competent to take up DNA from the environment, often using heat shock or electroporation.

Purpose: To determine the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Methodology: Typically, by Sanger sequencing using dideoxynucleotide triphosphates or next-generation sequencing technologies.

Purpose: To measure expression levels of multiple genes simultaneously. Methodology: cDNA or oligonucleotides are fixed on a solid surface and hybridized with labeled cRNA or cDNA from samples.

Purpose: To identify DNA-binding sites of specific proteins. Methodology: Chromatin is cross-linked, sheared, and then precipitated with an antibody against the protein of interest; associated DNA is identified by PCR.

Purpose: To separate nucleic acids or proteins based on size and charge. Methodology: Molecules are pulled through a gel matrix by an electric field, smaller molecules travel faster and farther.

Purpose: To detect specific proteins in a sample. Methodology: Proteins are separated by gel electrophoresis, transferred to a membrane, and targeted with antibodies specific to the protein of interest.

Purpose: To analyze physical and chemical characteristics of cells or particles. Methodology: Cells are suspended in a stream of fluid and passed through a laser beam; detectors capture information about the size and granularity.

Purpose: To detect specific RNA sequences in a sample. Methodology: RNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis, transferred to a membrane, and probed with a labeled DNA or RNA fragment complementary to the target sequence.

Purpose: To edit genomes by inducing double-strand breaks at specific locations. Methodology: Utilizes the Cas9 nuclease directed by a guide RNA to the target sequence where it introduces breaks, allowing for gene modification.

Purpose: To join DNA fragments together. Methodology: Using DNA ligase to covalently link DNA ends after insertion of a DNA fragment into a vector.

Purpose: To amplify a specific segment of DNA. Methodology: Repeated cycles of heating and cooling to denature DNA, anneal primers, and extend the primers with a DNA polymerase enzyme.

Purpose: To detect the location of specific nucleic acid sequences on chromosomes or in tissues. Methodology: Use of labeled complementary DNA or RNA probes that hybridize to the sequence of interest.

Purpose: To detect specific DNA sequences in a sample. Methodology: DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis, transferred to a membrane, and probed with a labeled DNA fragment complementary to the target sequence.