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Purpose: To examine obedience to authority figures. Findings: A large number of participants were willing to administer what they believed to be painful electric shocks to another person when instructed by an authority figure. Ethical considerations: Deception of participants and the potential psychological harm raised serious ethical concerns.

Purpose: To observe the natural progression of untreated syphilis in African-American men. Findings: Documented the severe health issues caused by syphilis when not treated. Ethical considerations: Highly unethical as participants did not give informed consent, were misled, and were denied treatment.

Purpose: To map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome. Findings: Completed the map of human genetic material, contributing to advances in medicine, biotechnology, and genetics. Ethical considerations: Raised concerns about genetic privacy and discrimination.

Purpose: To prove that hand washing could drastically reduce the number of women dying after childbirth. Findings: Demonstrated that hand washing with chlorinated lime solutions could significantly decrease the incidence of puerperal fever deaths. Ethical considerations: There were minimal risks involved; however, the implications were not immediately accepted by the medical community.

Purpose: To establish ethical principles and guidelines for research involving human subjects. Findings: Introduced respect for persons, beneficence, and justice as key ethical principles. Ethical considerations: The report itself is a foundational document in the ethics of clinical research, addressing issues raised by past unethical studies.

Purpose: To determine the transmission of yellow fever. Findings: Concluded that Aedes aegypti mosquitoes were responsible for spreading yellow fever. Ethical considerations: Involved human subjects in potentially dangerous experiments; however, participants gave informed consent.

Purpose: Thalidomide was marketed as a mild sleeping pill safe even for pregnant women. Findings: Led to thousands of babies being born with phocomelia or other serious malformations. Ethical considerations: The disaster led to stricter drug regulations and testing before approval.

Purpose: Initially to study Staphylococcus bacteria. Findings: Noticed that mold (Penicillium notatum) prevented bacterial growth, leading to the discovery of penicillin. Ethical considerations: Serendipitous discovery with no direct ethical implications at the time.

Purpose: To investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the struggle between prisoners and prison officers. Findings: Demonstrated that perfectly healthy individuals could display abusive behaviors in a prison-like environment. Ethical considerations: The experiment was stopped early due to extreme psychological stress and abusive behavior observed; it lacked full informed consent.

Purpose: To determine the structure of DNA. Findings: James Watson and Francis Crick, building on the work of Rosalind Franklin and others, discovered the double helix structure of DNA. Ethical considerations: Posthumous recognition of Rosalind Franklin's contributions raises questions of gender equity in science.

Purpose: To study digestive processes in dogs. Findings: Established the principles of classical conditioning. Ethical considerations: Involves animal experimentation, which raises concerns about the treatment of the dogs used in his research.

Purpose: To categorize children with distinct psychological behaviours. Findings: Described a form of autism now known as Asperger's Syndrome. Ethical considerations: During the Nazi era, his work has been scrutinized for possibly sending children to their deaths under the regime's euthanasia program.

Purpose: To develop a vaccination method for smallpox. Findings: Successfully demonstrated immunity against smallpox using cowpox material. Ethical considerations: Involved risks by inoculating a healthy individual, James Phipps, with cowpox.

Purpose: To use a line of human cells for medical research. Findings: HeLa cells were instrumental in various medical breakthroughs and are some of the most important cell lines in medical research. Ethical considerations: Raised issues about consent, as the cells were taken without Henrietta Lacks' knowledge or consent and her identity was initially not given recognition.

Purpose: To support the theory that gender identity is primarily learned and can be changed with surgery and proper upbringing. Findings: The case was initially claimed to be a success but later revealed to be a failure, as David Reimer did not identify as female. Ethical considerations: Ethical breaches include lack of informed consent and psychological harm.

Purpose: To test the effectiveness and safety of the polio vaccine. Findings: Demonstrated that the killed-virus vaccine was safe and effective in preventing polio. Ethical considerations: Involved risks associated with mass vaccination campaigns and public pressure for a vaccine.

Purpose: A CIA program to research mind control and chemical interrogation techniques. Findings: Unconclusive results regarding effective mind control, but extensive documentation of human rights abuses. Ethical considerations: Highly unethical with its use of unknowing participants, administration of drugs, and various forms of torture.

Purpose: Henrietta Lacks' cancer cells were the first to be successfully cloned and were used to create an immortal cell line for medical research. Findings: HeLa cells were vital in developing the polio vaccine, understanding cancer, and much more. Ethical considerations: Raised ethical issues regarding consent as cells were taken without her or her family's knowledge or approval.

Purpose: To study the effects of maternal separation and social isolation on infant rhesus monkeys. Findings: Concluded that social isolation had a detrimental effect on the development of the monkeys. Ethical considerations: Considered highly unethical by modern standards due to the psychological distress inflicted on animals.