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Antimicrobial Resistance
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Enzymatic modification of antibiotics
Example bacteria: Acinetobacter baumannii, Implications: Resistance to aminoglycosides.
Biofilm formation
Example bacteria: Staphylococcus epidermidis, Implications: Difficulty in treating infections on medical devices.
Mutation-driven hypermutation
Example bacteria: Neisseria meningitidis, Implications: Rapid emergence of resistance to diverse antibiotics.
Porin protein mutations
Example bacteria: Escherichia coli, Implications: Resistance to carbapenems.
Mutation in DNA gyrase
Example bacteria: Campylobacter jejuni, Implications: Resistance to fluoroquinolones.
Modification of target site
Example bacteria: Streptococcus pneumoniae, Implications: Resistance to macrolides.
Beta-lactamase production
Example bacteria: Staphylococcus aureus, Implications: Resistance to penicillin and related antibiotics.
Sequestration of antibiotics
Example bacteria: Listeria monocytogenes, Implications: Evasion of antibiotic activity, complicating treatment of listeriosis.
Protection of target by cellular proteins
Example bacteria: Haemophilus influenzae, Implications: Resistance to macrolides.
Antibiotic modification by glycosylation
Example bacteria: Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), Implications: Resistance to vancomycin.
Target mimicry
Example bacteria: Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Implications: Resistance to penicillin.
Ribosomal protection
Example bacteria: Enterococcus faecalis, Implications: Resistance to aminoglycosides.
Target bypass
Example bacteria: Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Implications: Resistance to macrolides.
Horizontal gene transfer
Example bacteria: Klebsiella pneumoniae, Implications: Rapid spread of resistance genes like carbapenemases.
Efflux pumps
Example bacteria: Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Implications: Resistance to tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones.
Target overproduction
Example bacteria: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Implications: Resistance to methicillin.
Alteration of metabolic pathways
Example bacteria: Mycobacterium leprae, Implications: Resistance to dapsone.
Gene amplification
Example bacteria: Salmonella enterica, Implications: Resistance to chloramphenicol.
Inactivation of regulatory genes
Example bacteria: Streptococcus mutans, Implications: Resistance to quinolones.
Reduced permeability
Example bacteria: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Implications: Resistance to isoniazid.
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