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The HPA axis involves the release of CRH from the hypothalamus, stimulating the pituitary to release ACTH, which in turn stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce cortisol. This leads to increased blood glucose and modulation of the immune response.

This axis starts with GnRH from the hypothalamus. GnRH stimulates the pituitary to release LH and FSH, which target the gonads, resulting in production of sex steroids (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone) and gametogenesis.

The HPT axis begins with TRH from the hypothalamus, which stimulates TSH release from the pituitary. TSH then stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones T3 and T4, affecting metabolism.

Insulin, secreted by pancreatic beta cells, facilitates the uptake of glucose by cells, lowering blood glucose levels. The liver converts excess glucose into glycogen for storage.

ACTH, produced by the pituitary gland, stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids (like cortisol) which help in responding to stress by increasing blood glucose levels.

GH is secreted by the pituitary and promotes growth and cell reproduction. It also stimulates the liver to produce IGF-1, which mediates many of the effects of GH.

Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid gland when calcium levels are high, acts to reduce blood calcium by inhibiting osteoclasts and stimulating calcium uptake by bones.

PTH is released by the parathyroid glands in response to low calcium levels, and it increases calcium by stimulating osteoclast activity, reducing calcium loss in urine, and activating vitamin D (to increase intestinal absorption).

ADH, also known as vasopressin, is produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the pituitary. It conserves water by reducing urine volume and is released in response to high blood osmolarity.

Leptin is secreted by adipose cells and helps to regulate energy balance by inhibiting hunger, which in turn diminishes fat storage in adipocytes.

Glucagon, produced by pancreatic alpha cells, promotes the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and the release of glucose into the bloodstream, raising blood glucose levels.

Prolactin is secreted by the pituitary and stimulates breast development and milk production in females. Its secretion is regulated by the hypothalamus.

EPO is produced by the kidneys and stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow in response to low oxygen levels in the blood.

Aldosterone, produced by the adrenal cortex, acts on the kidneys to conserve sodium, promote water retention, and increase blood pressure.

Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland in response to darkness and regulates sleep-wake cycles and circadian rhythms.

TSH is secreted by the pituitary and stimulates the thyroid gland to release T3 and T4, which increase metabolism in cells.

Estrogens, mainly produced by the ovaries, play a key role in regulating the menstrual cycle, promoting the growth of the uterine lining, and facilitating ovum maturation.

Testosterone, produced primarily in the testes, is responsible for the development of male secondary sexual characteristics, such as facial hair growth, increased muscle mass, and deepening of the voice.

Somatostatin, produced by the hypothalamus, inhibits the release of growth hormone from the pituitary, thus modulating body growth and metabolism.