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Common Metabolic Pathways

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Oxidative Phosphorylation

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Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane, ultimately reducing O2 to water and generating ATP.

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β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids

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Sequential removal of two-carbon fragments from fatty acids, resulting in Acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2.

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Fatty Acid Synthesis

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Repeated addition of two-carbon units to grow a fatty acid chain, using acetyl-CoA as the precursor and NADPH as the reducing agent, producing palmitate as the end product.

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Heme Synthesis

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A multi-step pathway that generates heme from glycine and succinyl-CoA, involves the production of intermediates such as porphobilinogen and protoporphyrin.

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Urea Cycle

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The conversion of toxic ammonia into urea for excretion, involves five reactions starting from ammonia and bicarbonate to form urea.

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Gluconeogenesis

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The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids, involving 11 enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

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Glycolysis

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10-step process, converting glucose to pyruvate with net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.

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Pentose Phosphate Pathway

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A parallel pathway to glycolysis that generates NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.

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Glycogenolysis

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The breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate, which is then converted into glucose-6-phosphate for further metabolism.

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Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

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Cyclic sequence of 8 steps converting Acetyl-CoA into CO2, GTP, and reduced coenzymes (3 NADH and 1 FADH2).

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