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Common Metabolic Pathways
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Glycolysis
10-step process, converting glucose to pyruvate with net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH.
Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
Cyclic sequence of 8 steps converting Acetyl-CoA into CO2, GTP, and reduced coenzymes (3 NADH and 1 FADH2).
Oxidative Phosphorylation
Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are transferred through a series of protein complexes in the inner mitochondrial membrane, ultimately reducing O2 to water and generating ATP.
Pentose Phosphate Pathway
A parallel pathway to glycolysis that generates NADPH and ribose 5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.
Gluconeogenesis
The synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors, such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids, involving 11 enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids
Sequential removal of two-carbon fragments from fatty acids, resulting in Acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2.
Urea Cycle
The conversion of toxic ammonia into urea for excretion, involves five reactions starting from ammonia and bicarbonate to form urea.
Fatty Acid Synthesis
Repeated addition of two-carbon units to grow a fatty acid chain, using acetyl-CoA as the precursor and NADPH as the reducing agent, producing palmitate as the end product.
Heme Synthesis
A multi-step pathway that generates heme from glycine and succinyl-CoA, involves the production of intermediates such as porphobilinogen and protoporphyrin.
Glycogenolysis
The breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate, which is then converted into glucose-6-phosphate for further metabolism.
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