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Key steps: Synthesis of the sphingoid base, N-acylation to form ceramide, Complex sphingolipid formation (e.g., sphingomyelin, glycosphingolipids). End products: Sphingolipids. Significance: Sphingolipids are vital components of cell membranes and involved in signaling and cell recognition phenomena.

Key steps: Acetyl-CoA conversion to HMG-CoA, Mevalonate synthesis, Isoprenoid assembly into squalene and conversion to cholesterol. End products: Cholesterol. Significance: Essential for cell membrane integrity, steroid hormone synthesis, and bile acid formation.

Key steps: Acetyl-CoA formation, Citrate synthesis, Oxaloacetate regeneration. End products: CO2, GTP/ATP, NADH, FADH2. Significance: Central hub of metabolic pathways and provides high-energy electrons for the electron transport chain.

Key steps: Glucose phosphorylation, Fructose-6-phosphate phosphorylation, Pyruvate formation. End products: Pyruvate, ATP, NADH. Significance: It is the initial step in carbohydrate catabolism and provides energy under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Key steps: Nitrogenase catalysis, ATP consumption, Ammonia production. End products: Ammonia, Hydrogen gas. Significance: Converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and other organisms for amino acid and nucleotide synthesis.

Key steps: Acetyl-CoA carboxylation, Fatty acid chain elongation, Desaturation and modification. End products: Palmitate, longer-chain fatty acids. Significance: Produces fatty acids for storage, membrane formation, and signaling molecules.

Key steps: Tyrosine oxidation to DOPA and dopaquinone, Polymerization and cyclization to form different types of melanin. End products: Eumelanin, Pheomelanin. Significance: Provides pigmentation to hair, skin, and eyes and offers protection against UV radiation.

Key steps: Glycolysis, NAD+ regeneration through lactate formation. End products: Lactate, ATP. Significance: Allows continued glycolysis and ATP production under anaerobic conditions by regenerating NAD+.

Key steps: Carbamoyl phosphate synthesis, Citrulline formation, Urea production from arginine. End products: Urea, Ornithine. Significance: Converts ammonia, a neurotoxin, into urea, which can be safely excreted via the urine.

Key steps: NADH/ FADH2 oxidation, Proton pumping across mitochondrial membrane, Oxygen reduction. End products: Water, Proton gradient for ATP synthesis. Significance: Final step in aerobic respiration, generating the majority of a cell's ATP.

Key steps: Transamination, Removal of the amino group by deamination, Carbon skeleton conversion to central metabolic intermediates. End products: Urea (from ammonia), Pyruvate, Acetyl-CoA, or TCA cycle intermediates. Significance: Provides an energy source and/or substrates for gluconeogenesis during starvation.

Key steps: Incorporation of inorganic sulfur into organic form, Conversion of methionine to cysteine, Glutathione synthesis. End products: Cysteine, Glutathione. Significance: Results in the production of crucial sulfur-containing amino acids and antioxidants.

Key steps: Synthesis of δ-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) from glycine and succinyl-CoA, Porphobilinogen formation, Heme assembly from four porphyrin rings. End products: Heme. Significance: Vital for the creation of hemoglobin, cytochromes, and other hemoproteins.

Key steps: PRPP formation, Inosine monophosphate (IMP) synthesis, AMP and GMP branching from IMP. End products: Purine nucleotides (AMP, GMP). Significance: Critical for DNA and RNA synthesis, energy metabolism (ATP), and signal transduction (cAMP).

Key steps: Synthesis of glutamyl-cysteine, Glutathione (GSH) synthesis from glutamyl-cysteine and glycine, Glutathione recycling (GSH to GSSG and back to GSH). End products: Glutathione. Significance: Critical for cellular detoxification, maintenance of the redox state, and immune function.

Key steps: mRNA binding to ribosome, tRNA anticodon pairing with mRNA codon, Peptide bond formation. End products: Polypeptide chains (proteins). Significance: Constructs proteins based on genetic information encoded in mRNA.

Key steps: Light absorption, ATP and NADPH generation, Carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle. End products: Glucose, Oxygen. Significance: Converts solar energy into chemical energy and produces oxygen for aerobic organisms.

Key steps: Carbamoyl phosphate synthesis, Orotate formation, Nucleotide assembly. End products: Pyrimidine nucleotides (CTP, UTP, TTP). Significance: Essential for the production of DNA and RNA, and regulation of key biosynthetic pathways.

Key steps: Tetrahydrofolate (THF) formation, Methyl group transfers, Methionine synthesis from homocysteine. End products: Methylated compounds, Methionine. Significance: Central to the transfer of one-carbon units involved in amino acid metabolism, DNA methylation, and nucleotide biosynthesis.

Key steps: Decarboxylation of ornithine to putrescine, Sequential addition of aminopropyl groups to putrescine and spermidine. End products: Spermidine, Spermine. Significance: Polyamines are essential for cell growth, stabilization of negative charges in DNA, and modulating ion channels.

Key steps: Ribose-5-phosphate conversion to PRPP, Base formation on PRPP, Nucleotide interconversions. End products: Purine and pyrimidine nucleotides. Significance: Essential for DNA and RNA synthesis, energy transactions, and signaling pathways.

Key steps: Arachidonic acid release, Cyclooxygenase action on arachidonic acid, Specific prostaglandin synthesis. End products: Prostaglandins, Thromboxanes. Significance: Plays key roles in inflammation, pain, fever regulation, and clot formation.

Key steps: Glycolysis, Pyruvate decarboxylation, Ethanol production for NAD+ regeneration. End products: Ethanol, ATP, carbon dioxide. Significance: Used by certain yeast and bacteria; also exploited in brewing and bread-making.

Key steps: Pyruvate carboxylation, PEP synthesis from oxaloacetate, Glucose formation from G6P. End products: Glucose. Significance: It enables the body to maintain blood glucose levels during fasting.

Key steps: Glycogen phosphorylation, Glucose-1-phosphate conversion to G6P, Glycogen debranching. End products: Glucose-6-phosphate, Glucose. Significance: Mobilizes stored glucose from glycogen for use during energy-demanding situations.

Key steps: G6P conversion to G1P, UDP-glucose formation, Glycogen chain elongation and branching. End products: Glycogen. Significance: Stores excess glucose for later use as an energy reserve in animals.

Key steps: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenation, Ribose-5-phosphate isomerization, NADPH generation. End products: Ribose-5-phosphate, NADPH. Significance: Generates NADPH for biosynthetic reactions and ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.

Key steps: Fatty acid activation, Fatty acid entry into mitochondria, Acetyl-CoA cleavage. End products: Acetyl-CoA, NADH, FADH2. Significance: Breaks down fatty acids into two-carbon units that feed into the TCA cycle.