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Brightfield microscopy is the simplest of all the optical microscopy illumination techniques. Sample illumination is transmitted (i.e., illuminated from below and observed from above) white light, and contrast in the sample is caused by absorbance of some of the transmitted light in dense areas of the sample.

DIC Microscopy uses polarized light to gain information about the sample's optical path length and to enhance the contrast in unstained, transparent samples. It provides a pseudo-3D image of the sample.

Fluorescence microscopy uses the phenomena of fluorescence and phosphorescence to study properties of organic or inorganic substances. Specimens are often tagged with fluorescent dyes (fluorophores) and illuminated with specific wavelengths of light.

X-ray microscopy uses X-rays to visualize specimens that are thick or dense. It provides a relatively high resolution and can be used to study the internal structure of cells or materials without sectioning.

Confocal microscopy uses point illumination and a spatial pinhole to create optical sections of a specimen, significantly reducing background fluorescence outside the focal plane. It's commonly used for 3D imaging of specimens.

Darkfield microscopy is a technique where the sample is illuminated with light that will not be collected by the objective lens, hence the field appears dark. It is useful for visualizing structures that are unstained and transparent.

STORM is a super-resolution imaging technique that uses sequential activation and time-resolved localization of photoswitchable fluorophores to create images with a resolution higher than traditional light microscopy limits.

TIRF microscopy uses an optical phenomenon called total internal reflection to excite fluorophores only within a small volume of the specimen near the glass-water interface. This results in a very thin optical section and reduces background fluorescence.

AFM uses a mechanical probe to scan the surface of a sample at the nanoscale. It can measure local properties, such as height, friction, and magnetism, and does not require the sample to be conductive.

Two-Photon microscopy uses two photons of lower energy whose combined energy is enough to excite a fluorescent dye. This technique allows imaging of living tissue up to a very high depth and reduces photobleaching and phototoxicity.

Phase-contrast microscopy converts small phase shifts in light passing through a transparent specimen to differences in light intensity. It's often used to study live cells and cellular components, particularly those that are transparent and difficult to observe under normal light conditions.

Cryo-EM flash freezes samples and views them with an electron microscope. The rapid freezing preserves the native structures of samples, enabling the study of samples in their native state without the need for staining or fixatives.

SEM uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons to generate a variety of signals at the surface of solid specimens. The signals derive from electron-sample interactions reveal information about the sample including external morphology, chemical composition, and crystalline structure.

NSOM breaches the diffraction limit of light by scanning a specimen with a light source sized smaller than the wavelength of light. It obtains high-resolution surface characterization and can operate in reflection, transmission, and fluorescence modes.